Week 6 class discussions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 6 class discussions - Assignment Example Watermarking communication usually takes place in a one-to-many communication system while steganography communication takes place in a point-to-point communication. Both stenography and watermarking hide the content and existence of the message while cryptography hides the content but not the existence of the message, they are therefore mutually exclusive (Stefan & Fabien, 2000). Watermarking, cryptography, and stenography aim at securing messages from attackers. The benefits of ADS outweigh the risks as files can be hidden on an NTFS hard disk in a way that is difficult to detect as long as there are proper security features to handle them and system administrators are aware of the streams. If Microsoft discontinues support of ADS in future versions of its operating system, the forensic industry would suffer a big blow as it would not be able to find most of the copies of some work for its forensic investigations. This is because streams are retained if a file is copied with ADS to another NTFS, which is very important for forensics. The most significant obstacle to successful backing up data and/or recovering data for forensic investigators is lack of cooperation from the management (Wiles & Rogers, 2007). The management is responsible at providing funds and direction regarding backing up and recovering of data. However, due to many computer malpractices many managers get involved into, they fear that they might be caught one day when a forensic investigation is done and therefore might not fully cooperate in regard to backing up and recovering done for forensic purposes. Forensic investigation is normally done to unearth the vices done in an organization. The results of forensic investigation are normally taken to law courts for legal actions to be taken. In the event that a system forensic is to be done, many people in the case normally do the much they can to destroy evidence in the computers. They do this through destroying computer systems, deleting

Journal Article Critique of an Empirical Analysis of Trends in Psychology Essay Example for Free

Journal Article Critique of an Empirical Analysis of Trends in Psychology Essay I.Research Question or Problem The journal article question is clearly stated. The question asks whether the behaviourist, the psychoanalytic, the cognitive, or the neuroscientific perspective is most intellectually significant and most prominent in psychology today (Robins, Goling, Craik, 1999, p. 117). II. Introduction The introduction presents differing contentions regarding which school of psychology is most prominent. Five references have been cited in the introduction. It is believed by some that the cognitive perspective reigns over psychoanalysis and behaviourism (Baars, 1986; Gardner, 1985; Hunt, 1993; Sperry, 1988, as cited in Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 117). An opposing conviction, however, states that this belief is merely a representation of cognitive psychologists’ opinion of their own field rather than an accurate statement based on facts (Friman, Allen, Kerwin, Larzelere, 1993, p. 662, as cited in Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 117). Furthermore, it is argued that the belief in a â€Å"cognitive perspective revolution† is simply a method for scientists to justify their practice (Leahey, 1991, p.362, as cited in Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 117). Other theories have indicated, without empirical evidence however, that behaviourism continues to flourish despite the loss of â€Å"mentor B.F Skinner† (Salzinger, 1994, p. 816; p. 461, as cited in Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 117). Lastly, it is contented by some that the neuroscientific perspective continues to prosper (Churchland, 1998, as cited in Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 117), and that the entire field of psychology will eventually become a subfield of neuroscience (Bechtel, 1988, as cited in Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 117). III.Methods The authors employed three indexes to conduct their study; the subject-matter index of psychology’s Flagship publications, the subject-matter index of psychology dissertations and the citation index of Flagship publications. For the psychology’s Flagship publications, authors selected several word stems in a database called psychINFO, including: psychoanal#, cognit#, neurosci#, reinforce#, and conditioning#. At that time, they calculated the percentage of articles published in the Flagship publications between 1950 to 1997 and charted their findings over time (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 118). For the psychology dissertations, authors once again employed psychINFO, this time, to analyze the topics presented in doctoral dissertations between 1967 to 1994. Then, they calculated the percentage of dissertations for each of the four psychological perspectives (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 119). Finally, for the citation index of Flagship publications, authors surv eyed trends regarding the number of citations found concerning each perspective in the Flagship publications. Then, they selected the top four journals in each perspective using a rating system operated by prominent neuroscientists (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 119). Applying these findings, authors calculated the â€Å"total number of times per year the flagship publications cited articles published in each sub-disciplinary journal† (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p. 119). IV. Results The results undoubtedly provided answers to the question/hypothesis. The findings indicated that articles regarding the cognitive perspective appeared most frequently in all three indexes, followed by the behavioural perspective. Articles regarding the psychoanalytic and neuroscientific perspective, however, were essentially non-existent throughout the studied period. Authors provided graphs and tables in order to demonstrate their findings over time for each index (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p.121-126). V.Discussion/Conclusions Due to their compelling findings, the authors were able to construct several conclusions. Firstly, psychoanalytic journals, dissertations, and flagship articles have not been in the spotlight of mainstream psychology for the past several decades (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p.123, 124). Secondly, with the focus currently on cognitive psychology, behavioural psychology has and continues to subside in scientific psychology (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p.124). Moreover, the authors’ state that one reason cognitive psychology is transcending behavioural psychology is due to the immeasurable role of computers in modern society. For example, thanks to computers, considerable changes have taken place in regards to scientists’ understanding of memory, information processing, etc (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p.124). Lastly, mainstream psychology does not yet recognize neuropsychology; however, there is an obvious increase in popularity that is underway. Authors recommen d further research to explore the growing prominence of neuropsychology (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p.125). VI.References Authors used a clear and consistent citation format, and each of the references was properly cited within the article. The authors used a variety of sources ranging from the 1930’s to the year prior to the study. The older references were used to demonstrate variations of theories over time. VII.Personal Reaction I consider this article to be rather thought-provoking. From the beginning, I agreed with the theorists who believed that cognitive psychology was the leading school of psychology. Although this article was written fourteen years ago, I believe it continues to be true today. I was not aware of the serious decline of the behavioural perspective; however, after reading about the impact computers have had on science and scientists, it became clear (Robins, Gosling, Craik, 1999, p.124). One limitation that I feel could have affected the results was the manner in which they selected the top four journals. I wonder if the results would have varied had different journals been chosen. In my opinion, the sample size of four journals seems somewhat confining to the research. Even so, this was a very interesting article. I would be rather intrigued to read a current study of the same topic and see if the results are equivalent.

What techniques has Leon Gast applied to engage his audience in When E

Throughout the year I have been studying the documentary 'When We Were Kings' based around the 1974 World Boxing Championship fight between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman. The fight was staged in Zaire, Africa and is subsequently predominantly an African influenced film, although still effective in delivering the story and exposition of one of the greatest sporting moments of our modern era. Through use of a complex sound track - including live sound and interviews from the past - Gast is able to entice me to continue viewing the colourful, musical and exciting documentary. Using a majority of archival footage combined with a cast of experts and witness' Leon Gast captures the moment whilst providing us with the necessary background information and detail. A number of questions are asked and social issues raised providing us with a contrast of morals and ideals creating a fast moving, intriguing look at an event adopted in to boxing folklore as the greatest of all time. Although Ga st is unable to incorporate much of his craft - due to a majority of archival footage - he is still able to build tension and demonstrate importance through his shot selection, use of motifs and selection of music. When I viewed Gast's dramatic yet uplifting look at the 1974 World Heavyweight Boxing title fight in Zaire, I was engaged through his use of evocative and up-beat music. Music plays almost constantly throughout and is effective in establishing a mood of fun and excitement about the brutal bout. To begin the film Gast introduces us to the tribal rhythms of Zaire, I believe to signify the origins of both fighters and the importance of cultural links between America, Africa and the evolution of popular culture. Gast also employs the use of a mysterious African women - a dancer and performer - through use of close up's and intense, tension building rhythms. She appears throughout the documentary and we are told later that a witch doctor predicted Foreman might be defeated by use of a voodoo spell involving a "woman with fluttering hands". Whether there is any element of truth to the prediction, Gast's inclusion of this native African lady is clearly to provide an element of mys tery and intrigue around not only the fight in Zaire, but also Ali's greatness. The tribal rhythms and traditional African music work well for Gast and are effective in portraying the mood... ...nter the armed forces during the Vietnam war- had resulted in a jail sentence and loss of the title. This was Ali's return, the greatest of all time was returning to the ring to face one of the most formidable individuals ever to step in to the square shaped arena, making it a bout no red-blooded American and no self respecting sports fan worldwide could miss. Gast's subject matter - the fight itself - and people involved - namely Ali - are perhaps one of the most appealing events to be covered in sports history (with relation to real life relevance) The people involved in Gast's documentary are remarkably effective in delivering the recount of the 'Rumble in the Jungle' combining aging experts with those who were scattered amongst the commotion that was the concert and fight in Zaire, 1974. Spike Lee appears throughout to provide a modern, filmmakers perspective while George Plimpton and Norman Mailer commentate, adding excitement and human dimension to the fight. Mailer and Plimpton covered the fight in the seventies and provide us with a credible recount and are effective in providing professional detail for us helping us understand some more technical angles explored by Gast.

Taste the Gustatory System

The Enlightenment is an era where intellectuals movement in culture changed the way people viewed the world around them, during a time when Londoner saw their city become engulf in flames on the morning of 2 September, 1666. Strong winds coming from the east quickly caused the fire to spread, some 300 houses were burning at rapid amount of time†; the event once described as â€Å"London was, but is no more. â€Å"(Assayer 2nd peg. 766) Not only had the flames taken most of what Landowner's had lilt, it also came on the heels of a great plague that claimed thousands of lives earlier.Over the course of the next century, London would raise from its ashes and proper as city its known today, as one writer would be quoted saying: â€Å"London is the Centre to which almost all the individuals who fill the upper and middle ranks of society are successively attracted (Assayer 2nd De. peg. 766). Over the course of time, in what some might say the end of the Civil War, one very importa nt issue still stood: ND that was â€Å"how to best govern the nation. â€Å"(Assayer 2nd peg. 68) Thomas Hobbes work had lead him to voice concern that people worry about two things In particular- the fear that someone could take their lives and the grittiness of individuals and their need of empowerment, for that the government role is to see that no such thing happen. But not all agreed with what Thomas Hobbes was teaching; John Locke argued that people are At birth the human mind Is at a untaught state and that over time our surroundings and

Walmart and Target a Closer Look at Strategic Interaction

Main Paper Walmart and Target: A closer look at strategic interaction Maastricht University School of Business and Economics Maastricht, 4th December 2011 Bastian Hauk, BH ID number: i6034999 Study: International Business Course Code: EBC1009 Economics & Business Group Number: 31 Economics Tutor: Khan Writing Tutor: Hetty Bennink Writing Assignment: Main Paper Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction 2. Economic Principle: Game Theory 3. Applied Economic Principles 3. 1. Theory of Game for simultaneously Decision Making 3. 2. The extended Version for consecutive Decision Making 4. Conclusion References 4 6 7 8 2 2 1 Introduction In the United States of America there are only two very well-known discount retailers: Target and Walmart. Both are currently operating all over the country which places each of them among the biggest corporations in the United States. Nearly every American has been to at least one of them because they sell almost everything and E. Basker described this service â€Å"one-stop shopping† (2007). In 2007, Walmart operated more than 3,400 stores across the USA and a survey showed that by the end of 2005 46 percent of Americans lived within 5 miles of the nearest store; within 15 miles even 88 percent (Basker, 2007).Target operated 1,750 stores in January 2011 (Target Corp. , 2011). Since their wide range of products is quite similar they are large competitors. Thus, they are constantly waging price war against each other. In addition, they make use of strategic interaction and especially of game theory which is a mathematical model describing a decisionmaking process and showing how the players make different decisions that potentially affect each other’s interests (von Stenge, & Turocy, 2001). This paper analyses strategic interaction between Walmart and Target with respect to the game theory and the extended version.In order to do so it introduces first the theoretic background of strategic interaction. Afterwards it applies g ame theory and the extended version to this case in order to show the impact of strategic interaction on both discount retailers. It concludes by stating the importance of strategic interaction to optimal decision making and its relevance for Walmart and Target. 2 Economic principles: game theory and extended version The theory of games describes certain concepts in which several players influence each other’s decisions in situations of conflict and competition (Moffatt, 2011).In order to apply game theory there must be at least two players. The three basic elements of a game are the player, the strategies he can choose from and the payoffs the players receive from each combination of strategy. The payoff matrix describes the outcomes in a certain game for each possible combination of strategies as shown in Figure 2. 1. 2 Player One Strategy 1 Strategy 1 Outcome Player 1 Strategy 2 Outcome Player 1 Outcome Player Two Strategy 2 Player 2 Outcome Player 1 Outcome Player 2 Outco me Player 1 Outcome Player 2 Figure 2. 1: Payoff matrix for a two player game Outcome Player 2If one player used a dominant strategy, his choice yields a higher payoff, regardless what the other player does and as a result he has no incentive to change his strategy. For this example, player one’s dominant strategy would be strategy one if he received a higher outcome no matter which strategy player two chooses, but only if he then receives the highest payout. There are also some particular outcomes; for example the Nash equilibrium which occurs when any combination of strategies is the best strategy with the best possible outcome for all players (McDowell, Thom, Frank, & Bernanke, 009). An outcome created by two dominant strategies which is worse than the outcome created by two dominated strategies is called prisoner’s dilemma. The prisoner’s dilemma only occurs when each player’s dominant strategy results in a smaller payoff than it would have if they ha d chosen the dominated strategy. Game theory also assumes that the decisions are made simultaneously. To illustrate a game in which the players decide interdependent, the economist uses the extended version of game theory which is displayed with a game tree (McDowell, Thom, Frank, & Bernanke, 2009). Company 1 Decision: Action A or Action B Action A Company 2 Decision: Action C or Action D Action C Outcome 1 Outcome 2 Action D Action B Company 2 Decision: Action C or Action D Action C Outcome 3 Outcome 4 Action D Figure 2. 2: Decision tree Figure 2. 2 is an example of a game tree. Company 1 first decides which action they will take, which can be either A or B. Company 2 then has the choice how they want to react and whether they take action C or D. The best outcome can only be achieved with a backward nduction as a result of evaluating the results first and afterwards predicting the other player’s strategy. For example, outcome 3 would be the best outcome for company 2 if comp any 1 chose action B and therefore company 2 chooses action C. Outcome 2 would gain the highest profit for company 2 if company 1 took action A. 3 Applied Economic Principles 3. 1 Theory of game for simultaneously decision making As stated in the introduction this two very large American retailers are competitors and have a very similar customer base.The income of Targets customer base is slightly higher but it is not relevant for strategic interaction (Neuman, 2011). Theory of game helps to understand the different prices and how the different price strategies affect consumer behavior. This example is not based on any specific data. However, it is logic for somebody willing to buy a certain good to substitute the same good with an identical one if the price is lower and there are not any additional efforts to make. By applying game theory, the three basic elements have to be clear. 4 Walmart and Target are the players.Different pricing of a certain product -a television- are the st rategies while the different profits are the results of each combination of the strategies. Both companies have two pricing strategies: either to charge a low price of â‚ ¬300 or a high price of â‚ ¬500. They have to make the decision simultaneously, for instance before they release the television to the market. It is important to know that the customers are also willing to purchase the television for the high price. Target High Price (â‚ ¬500) High Price (â‚ ¬500) Walmart Walmart earns â‚ ¬10,000 profit Low Price (â‚ ¬300) Walmart earns â‚ ¬15,000 profit Figure 3. : Payoff matrix for Walmart and Target Figure 3. 1 shows a potential payoff matrix for this strategic interaction. It shows all possible outcomes for the two pricing strategies. Walmart and Target would both make â‚ ¬10,000 profit if they charged the high price and â‚ ¬7,500 profit if they charged the low price. If Walmart chose the low pricing strategy and Target used the high pricing strategy Walmart would gain â‚ ¬15,000 compared to the â‚ ¬5,000 profit Target would make. Target also makes â‚ ¬15,000 profit using the low price if Walmart decides to charge the high price.What does that mean for both companies? Since both of them would earn a higher profit by setting the price low in this scenario, both companies would choose â€Å"Low Price† as a dominant strategy. On the contrary, â€Å"High Price† would be the dominated strategy. Nash equilibrium can be found when both companies pick the â€Å"low price† strategy because they don’t have an incentive to change their strategy. This payoff 5 Low (â‚ ¬300) Target earns â‚ ¬15,000 profit Walmart earns â‚ ¬5,000 profit Target earns â‚ ¬7,500 profit Walmart earns â‚ ¬7,500 profitTarget earns â‚ ¬10,000 profit Target earns â‚ ¬5,000 profit matrix also shows that the strategy combination of â€Å"high price† and â€Å"high price† would be the best possible outcome for both firms. But rather than applying the dominated strategy Walmart and Target use the dominant strategy. This dilemma is called prisoner’s dilemma. Those dilemmas exist quite often and there are many reasons why they exist, for instance, both companies do not want the other one to make a higher profit or even to have the chance to receive a higher profit. 3. 2.The extended version for consecutive decision making Therefore Target and Walmart react and might change the strategy they had choosen. Both competitors often change their strategies. Although Singh (2006) stated that prices at Walmart are about 15 percent lower than in traditional supermarkets, Neuman (2011) proved by comparing almost 60 items that Target’s prices were a bit lower than Walmart’s. It is hard to rely on data which are released with a 5 year time difference but it shows that both firms constantly adjust the prices to be competitive.High Price Target High Price Walmart Low Price â‚ ¬10,000 for Target â‚ ¬10,000 for Walmart â‚ ¬15,000 for Target â‚ ¬5,000 for Walmart â‚ ¬5,000 for Target â‚ ¬15,000 for Walmart â‚ ¬7,500 for Target â‚ ¬7,500 for Walmart High Price Low Price Target Low Price Figure 3. 2: Decision Tree for Walmart and Target 6 Since the decisions of both companies are not made simultaneously the reacting firm -in this case Target- has to find out what action to take in order to receive the highest profit for either move Walmart makes. Walmart moves first and selects either strategy.Target is in the position to decide and how it wants to react. Thus, Target uses backward induction. First it evaluates the best results for each action Walmart uses; â‚ ¬15,000 profit if Walmart sets a high price and â‚ ¬7,500 profit if Walmart sets a low price. Afterwards it chooses the strategy how to get to that profit. Finally Walmart moves and selects the low or the high price strategy and Target is able to react sufficiently. Assu me that Walmart chooses the high price strategy then Target sets low prices and due to that Target earns the highest possible profit. Conclusion Walmart and Target are large competitors on the American retailer market and therefore strategic interaction is very important for them. Both companies know the ways to decide how to act concerning different strategies. Both companies know that it is necessary for them to react and choose the best strategy. In the first example both companies simultaneously introduce a television to the market. Their dominant strategy is to set a low price because both of them hope that the other company chooses the high price strategy.This is one example of a free market wherein the customers always choose the low price if available. Walmart and Target would earn a larger profit if both set the high price. In the other case Walmart moves first and afterwards Target chooses the strategy which leads to the highest outcome. The reacting company’s best strategy in the extended version of game theory is always the low price strategy. On the contrary, when two companies have to decide simultaneously it is not always the best choice to choose the low price strategy although it is their dominant strategy. References Basker, E. (2007). The Causes and Consequences of Wal-Mart’s Growth. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21 (3), 177-198. McDowell, M. , Thom, R. , Frank, R. , & Bernanke, B. (2009). Principles of Economics, 2nd European Edition. Maidenhead, UK: McGraw-Hill Education. Moffatt, M. (2008). What are Game Theory and Bargaining Theory? Retrieved December 4, 2011, from http://economics. about. com/cs/studentresources/f/game_theory. htm Neuman, S. (2011). Target Takes Aim At Walmart, With Some Success, NPR. Retrieved December 4, 2011, from http://www. pr. org/2011/08/19/139793948/target-takes-aim-at-walmartwith-some-success Singh, V. , Hansen, K. , & Blattberg, R. (2006). A Market Entry and Consumer Behavior: An investig ation of a Wal-Mart Supercenter. Marketing Science, 25 (5), 457-476 Target Corp. (2011). Target Annual Report 2010. Minnesota, US: Target. Retrieved December 7, 2011 from http://www. sec. gov/Archives/edgar/data/27419/000104746911002032/a2201861z10k. htm#bg11101a_main_toc Turocy, T. L, von Stenge, B (2001). Game Theory. Academic Press Limited, 2 (2), 69-73. 10. 1080/07430170152379371 doi: 8